Literary modernism
Literary modernism, or modernist literature, has its origins in the
late 19th and early 20th centuries, mainly in Europe and North America, and is
characterized by a very self-conscious break with traditional ways of writing,
in both poetry and prose fiction. Modernistsexperimented with literary form and
expression, as exemplified by Ezra Pound's maxim to "Make it new."[1] This literary movement was driven by a
conscious desire to overturn traditional modes of representation and express
the new sensibilities of their time.[2] The horrors of the First World War saw the prevailing assumptions about
society reassessed.
Origins and precursors
In
the 1880s increased attention was given to the idea that it was necessary to
push aside previous norms entirely, instead of merely revising past knowledge
in light of contemporary techniques. The theories of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), and Ernst Mach (1838–1916) influenced early Modernist
literature. Ernst Mach argued that the mind had a fundamental structure, and
that subjective experience was based on the interplay of parts of the mind
in The Science of Mechanics (1883). Freud's first major work
was Studies on Hysteria (with Josef Breuer) (1895). According to Freud, all subjective
reality was based on the play of basic drives and instincts, through which the
outside world was perceived. As a philosopher of science, Ernst Mach was a
major influence on logical positivism, and through his criticism of Isaac Newton, a forerunner of Einstein's theory of
relativity.
Many
prior theories about epistemology argued that external and absolute
reality could impress itself, as it were, on an individual, as, for
example, John Locke's
(1632–1704) empiricism,
which saw the mind beginning as a tabula rasa, a blank slate (An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690). Freud's description of subjective
states, involving an unconscious mind full of primal impulses and
counterbalancing self-imposed restrictions, was combined by Carl Jung (1875–1961) with the idea of the collective unconscious, which the conscious mind either fought or embraced.
While Charles Darwin's work remade the Aristotelian concept of "man, the animal"
in the public mind, Jung suggested that human impulses toward breaking social
norms were not the product of childishness or ignorance, but rather derived
from the essential nature of the human animal.[citation needed]
Another
major precursor of modernism[4] was Friedrich Nietzsche, especially his idea that psychological drives, specifically
the "will to power", were more important than facts, or things. Henri Bergson (1859–1941), on the other hand,
emphasized the difference between scientific clock time and the direct,
subjective, human experience of time.[5] His work on time and consciousness
"had a great influence on twentieth-century novelists," especially
those modernists who used the stream of consciousness technique, such as Dorothy Richardson for the book Pointed Roofs (1915), James Joyce for Ulysses (1922) and Virginia Woolf (1882–1941) for Mrs Dalloway (1925) and To the Lighthouse (1927).[6] Also important in Bergson's philosophy
was the idea of élan vital, the life force, which "brings
about the creative evolution of everything."[7] His philosophy also placed a high value
on intuition, though without rejecting the importance of the intellect.[7] These various thinkers were united by a
distrust of Victorian positivism and certainty.[citation needed] Modernism as a literary movement can also be seen as a
reaction to industrialization, urbanization and new technologies.
Important
literary precursors of modernism were Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821–81) (Crime and Punishment (1866), The
Brothers Karamazov(1880)); Walt Whitman (1819–92) (Leaves of Grass) (1855–91); Charles Baudelaire (1821–67) (Les Fleurs du mal), Rimbaud (1854–91) (Illuminations,
1874); August Strindberg (1849–1912), especially his later plays, including the
trilogy To Damascus 1898–1901, A Dream Play(1902), The
Ghost Sonata (1907).
Initially,
some modernists fostered a utopian spirit, stimulated by innovations in anthropology, psychology, philosophy, political theory, physics and psychoanalysis. The poets of the Imagist movement, founded by Ezra Pound in 1912 as a new poetic style, gave
modernism its early start in the 20th century,[9] and were characterized by a poetry that
favoured a precision of imagery, brevity and free verse.[9] This idealism, however, ended with the
outbreak of World War I, and writers created more cynical works that reflected
a prevailing sense of disillusionment. Many modernist writers also shared a
mistrust of institutions of power such as government and religion, and rejected
the notion of absolute truths.
Modernist
works such as T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land (1922) were increasingly self-aware,
introspective, and explored the darker aspects of human nature.
The
term modernism covers a number of related, and overlapping, artistic and
literary movements, including Imagism, Symbolism, Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism, Expressionism, and Dada.
Early modernist writers
Early
modernist writers, especially those writing after World War I and the
disillusionment that followed, broke the implicit contract with the general
public that artists were the reliable interpreters and representatives of
mainstream ("bourgeois") culture and ideas, and, instead,
developed unreliable narrators, exposing the irrationality at the roots of a supposedly
rational world.[11]
They
also attempted to take into account changing ideas about reality developed
by Darwin, Mach, Freud, Einstein, Nietzsche, Bergson and others. From this developed
innovative literary techniques such as stream-of-consciousness, interior monologue, as well as the use of multiple points-of-view. This can
reflect doubts about the philosophical basis of realism,
or alternatively an expansion of our understanding of what is meant by realism.
For example, the use of stream-of-consciousness or interior monologue reflects the need
for greater psychological realism.
It
is debatable when the modernist literary movement began, though some have
chosen 1910 as roughly marking the beginning and quote novelist Virginia Woolf, who declared that human nature underwent a
fundamental change "on or about December 1910".[ But modernism was already stirring by
1902, with works such as Joseph Conrad's (1857–1924) Heart of Darkness, while Alfred Jarry's (1873–1907) absurdistplay, Ubu Roi appeared even earlier, in 1896.
Among
early modernist non-literary landmarks is the atonal ending of Arnold Schoenberg's Second String Quartet in 1908, the Expressionistpaintings of Wassily Kandinsky starting in 1903 and culminating with
his first abstract painting and the founding of the Expressionist Blue Ridergroup in Munich in 1911, the rise of fauvism, and the introduction of cubism from the studios of Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braqueand others between 1900 and 1910.
Sherwood Anderson's Winesburg, Ohio (1919) is known as an early work of modernism for its
plain-spoken prose style and emphasis on psychological insight into characters.
James
Joyce was a major modernist writer whose strategies employed in his novel Ulysses (1922)
for depicting the events during a twenty-four-hour period in the life of his
protagonist, Leopold Bloom, have come to epitomize modernism's approach to fiction. The
poet T.S. Eliot described these qualities in 1923, noting that Joyce's
technique is "a way of controlling, of ordering, of giving a shape and a
significance to the immense panorama of futility and anarchy which is
contemporary history.... Instead of narrative method, we may now use the
mythical method. It is, I seriously believe, a step toward making the modern
world possible for art."[13] Eliot's own modernist poem The Waste Land (1922) mirrors "the futility and
anarchy" in its own way, in its fragmented structure, and the absence of
an obvious central, unifying narrative. This is in fact a rhetorical technique
to convey the poem's theme: "The decay and fragmentation of Western Culture".[14] The poem, despite the absence of a
linear narrative, does have a structure: this is provided by both fertility
symbolism derived from anthropology, and other elements such as the use of
quotations and juxtaposition.[14]
Modernist
literature addressed similar aesthetic problems as contemporary modernist
art. Gertrude Stein's abstract writings, for example, have been compared to the
fragmentary and multi-perspective Cubist paintings of her friend Pablo Picasso.[15] The questioning spirit of modernism, as
part of a necessary search for ways to make sense of a broken world, can also
be seen in a different form in the Scottish poet Hugh MacDiarmid's A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle (1928). In this poem, MacDiarmid applies
Eliot's techniques to respond to the question of nationalism, using comedic
parody, in an optimistic (though no less hopeless) form of modernism in which
the artist as "hero" seeks to embrace complexity and locate new
meanings.
Other
early modernist writers and selected works include:
·
Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936): The Late Mattia Pascal (1904), Six Characters in Search of an Author (1921);
·
Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926): The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge (1910), Sonnets to Orpheus (1922), Duino
Elegies (1922);
·
Konstantine Gamsakhurdia (1893–1975):The Smile of Dionysus (1925), Kidnapping
the Moon (1935—1936), The Right Hand of the Grand Master (1939);
·
Miroslav Krleža (1893–1981), Kristofor Kolumbo (1918), Michelangelo
Buonarroti (1919), Povratak Filipa Latinovicza (1932);
Continuation: 1920s and 1930s
Significant
modernist works continued to be created in the 1920s and 1930s, including
further novels by Marcel Proust, Virginia Woolf, Robert Musil ('Man without
qualities'), and Dorothy Richardson. The American modernist dramatist Eugene O'Neill's career began in 1914, but his major works
appeared in the 1920s and 1930s and early 1940s. Two other significant
modernist dramatists writing in the 1920s and 1930s were Bertolt Brecht and Federico García Lorca. D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover was published in 1928, while another important landmark
for the history of the modern novel came with the publication of William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury in 1929. In the 1930s, in addition to further major works
by Faulkner (As I Lay Dying, Light in August), Samuel Beckett published his first major work, the
novel Murphy(1938), while in 1932 John Cowper Powys published A Glastonbury Romance, the same year as Hermann Broch's The Sleepwalker. One of greatest achievement in modernist poetry is then followed by Miroslav Krleža's Ballads of Petrica Kerempuh in 1936. Then in 1939 James Joyce's Finnegans Wake appeared. It was in this year that
another Irish modernist, W. B. Yeats, died. In poetry T. S. Eliot, E. E. Cummings, and Wallace Stevens continued writing from the 1920s until
the 1950s. While modernist poetry in English is often viewed as an American phenomenon, with leading
exponents including Ezra Pound, Hart Crane, Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams, H.D., and Louis Zukofsky, there were important British modernist
poets, including T.S. Eliot, David Jones, Hugh MacDiarmid, Basil Bunting, and W. H. Auden. European modernist poets include Federico García Lorca, Fernando Pessoa, Anna Akhmatova, Constantine Cavafy, and Paul Valéry.
Modernist literature after 1939
Though The
Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature sees Modernism ending by
c.1939,[16] with regard to British and American
literature, "When (if) Modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly
as when the transition from Victorianism to Modernism occurred".[17] Clement Greenberg sees Modernism ending
in the 1930s, with the exception of the visual and performing arts.[18] In fact, many literary modernists lived
into the 1950s and 1960s, though generally speaking they were no longer
producing major works.
Late modernism
The
term late modernism is sometimes applied to modernist works published after
1930.[16][19] Among modernists (or late modernists)
still publishing after 1945 were Wallace Stevens, Gottfried Benn, T. S. Eliot, Anna Akhmatova, William Faulkner, Dorothy Richardson, John Cowper Powys, and Ezra Pound. Basil Bunting, born in 1901, published his most important
modernist poem Briggflatts in 1965. In addition Hermann Broch's The Death of Virgil was published in 1945 and Thomas Mann's Doctor Faustus in 1947 (early works by Thomas Mann, The Magic
Mountain (1924), and Death in Venice (1912) are
sometimes considered modernist). Samuel Beckett, who died in 1989, has been described as a
"later modernist".[20] Beckett is a writer with roots in
the expressionist tradition of modernism, who produced works from the 1930s
until the 1980s, including Molloy (1951), En attendant Godot (1953), Happy Days (1961) and Rockaby (1981). The terms minimalist and post-modernist have also been applied to his later
works.[21] The poets Charles Olson (1910–1970) and J. H. Prynne (b. 1936) have been described as late
modernists.[22]
More
recently the term late modernism has been redefined by at least one
critic and used to refer to works written after 1945, rather than 1930. With
this usage goes the idea that the ideology of modernism was significantly
re-shaped by the events of World War II, especially the Holocaust and the dropping of the atom bomb.
Theatre of the Absurd
The
term Theatre of the Absurd is applied to plays written by primarily European playwrights, that express the belief that human existence
has no meaning or purpose and therefore all communication breaks down. Logical
construction and argument gives way to irrational and illogical speech and to
its ultimate conclusion, silence.[23] While there are significant precursors,
including Alfred Jarry (1873–1907),
the Theatre of the Absurd is generally seen as beginning in the 1950s with the
plays of Samuel Beckett.
Critic Martin Esslin coined the term in his 1960 essay,
"Theatre of the Absurd." He related these plays based on a broad
theme of the Absurd, similar to the way Albert Camus uses the term in his 1942 essay, "The Myth of Sisyphus".[24] The Absurd in these plays takes the form
of man’s reaction to a world apparently without meaning, and/or man as a puppet
controlled or menaced by invisible outside forces. Though the term is applied
to a wide range of plays, some characteristics coincide in many of the plays:
broad comedy, often similar to Vaudeville, mixed with horrific or tragic images;
characters caught in hopeless situations forced to do repetitive or meaningless
actions; dialogue full of clichés, wordplay, and nonsense; plots that are
cyclical or absurdly expansive; either a parody or dismissal of realism and the
concept of the "well-made play".
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